Zappo??s Case Study

Before starting the analysis It should be taken In consideration that Zappers business is done thru e-commerce and it managed to introduce itself at the early sass's when society had trust issues with making business online, which is the platform that Capos used to create trust and enhance it's value proposition. 1. Acquisition Capos strategy for calculations Is to aim to prospect customers by: Word of Mouth – The best policy for quelled a client trust Is thru a good referral, this fact is exponentiation when applied to e-commerce Excellence in Customer Service –Achieved by an easy contact either thru the website and most importantly thru the call center, whose goal is not only help the client to complete their transaction and resolve any problem they may encounter, but to go beyond and create a connection with every customer. Actions speak louder than words. This is true for the WHOM policy on Capo's which have made them famous since the company started, Capo's underst ood in their early stages that the influence of â€Å"external effects† such as advertising or direct marketing, where not good enough tools to convince society to engage with the new rend of e-commerce.One of the mall problems with e-commerce Is trust (Specially In sass's), Capos managed to break the trust barrier by making themselves available 24/7 and by implementing one of the most flexible return policies in the market. This two elements take away the risk of buying online, since the client has the chance to give back the product if they don't like it or it doesn't fits, because of these, the buying experience Is just as if you go buy the same product on a store. Once the risk has been stable, capos creates value by providing an easier shopping experience here customer can go thru an online catalogue and buy from home.Retention By excellence in customer service, clients are constantly in a delight stage bringing high satisfaction levels since they receive way more than w hat they would expect from any other company and even from capos Itself! Client service and returned policies have created several switching cost, which enable them to retain their clients and also very important they created strong imitation barriers against competitors Evaluation cost – once the customer has tried and trust Capo's service, buying the risk, which makes it simpler Just to stay with capos.Benefit loss cost – This is not a â€Å"premium customer† benefit, but the generous return policy is given to every capos client, and it represents a big switching cost that might be stronger than strong price reductions, since the money being saved on buying the product, might not be worth nothing if they can't trust that the product will be delivered in time, with the quality expected, with a return policy, etc..Relational Switching Cost – The call center staff is instructed to create personal bonds with customers, even if it means to talk about non-pur chasing themes for hours, everything so that clients have a personal relationship with the brand (not only one staff member, but all of them) Development All these combined had created both attitudinal and behavioral loyalty, which translates into positive whom and continued repurchase habits. No matter the cost, the repurchase habits on clients must be kept specially if we take in mind that capos might constantly increase their product assortment.Having this in mind, even when the cost of the returned policy and the call center seem high, the company is investing in the Customer Lifetime Value, as said in the article, once a customer gets acquainted with the shopping experience thru Capos their repurchase levels increase as Capos keeps growing their catalogue it's assuring future purchases of their loyal customers. As seniority in clients grows so does their social value, which completes a cycle for new clients acquisitions by making WHOM a major drive for consumption in this indus try, thus making the investment on loyalty measures completely worthwhile. . Returned Merchandise Policy Capos brand has been built from gained trust from clients, this is what makes it exceptional, since it has created customer experience of delight that comes not only from exceptional operational process but from the service provided, making client's needs a first priority. As previously explained, the returned merchandise policy is a main component in the customer life cycle, not only is present in all stages, but its relevant for throughout acquisition, retention and development.As if it wasn't enough, this policy is crucial to the product value proposition and its a main differentiation factor from all competitors, since there's no other company that's so flexible on the returned researched. Customer equity, might be affected â€Å"negatively' by high acquisitions/retention costs, but rather than an expense, this should be counted as an investment (as Capos attract more custom ers induced by a social network effect.If Capos decided to cut down on returned policy, it would create a â€Å"dissatisfied effect† since as we had learned, the problem with delighting customers is that from now on this special treatment is now an expectation that if its not fulfill would bring to disappointment. Secondly, e-commerce is filled with competitors, big and small, you can find any kind f product assortment on the web and most importantly most of this companies try to attract their clients thru advertisement (mainly on web) and low prices.If Capos applied the same strategy, it might destroyed value, since it won't be able to differentiate from the rest of competitors that rely on publicity instead of being a one of a kind company that you will discover thru a very good referral. The proposition of cutting down on returned merchandise to invest on advertisement should be completely rejected, rather than advertise, it would be a better idea for the many to invest on social network management Just to make sure they are present and to empower their spokespersons to amplify the social network effect.The merchandise returned policy might have room for improvement for profitability purposes, we haven't been provided with the numbers, but for instance the time lapse of a one year could be cut down without having a big negative effect on clients, allowing the company to recognize profits accounting wise at an early stage. 3. Client Service by Ranking As discussed before, the call center is the key for profitability, since its the element hat creates a personal bond and the element of trust.If Capos decides to apply a distinctive service to their clients, they will no longer be providing an exceptional customer service, at least not to all of them. The commerce industry is still in the initial phase, they are new customers buying products for the first time, they are the late adopters and they might need an incentive to take this step. The call center is exactly what this potential customers need, they are interested enough to try to contact the company, they need to check that everything is legitimate and a good client service will assure them that they can trust Zapped.The call center is even more important for new clients, by applying a priority service based on seniority, Capos might lose a big share of their potential customers, since they will provide a disappointing first impression and some of them will defect even before they become customers. If the company is forced to cost reduction, they must do everything in their power to keep providing the excellence in customer service, because this is what the brand transmits to both new and current clients. By changing this factor, the brand will lose reduce its operational cost on logistics, their inventory, anything else before affecting client service. Zappos Case Study Before starting the analysis It should be taken In consideration that Zappers business is done thru e-commerce and it managed to introduce itself at the early sass's when society had trust issues with making business online, which is the platform that Capos used to create trust and enhance it's value proposition. 1. Acquisition Capos strategy for calculations Is to aim to prospect customers by: Word of Mouth – The best policy for quelled a client trust Is thru a good referral, this fact is exponentiation when applied to e-commerce Excellence in Customer Service –Achieved by an easy contact either thru the website and most importantly thru the call center, whose goal is not only help the client to complete their transaction and resolve any problem they may encounter, but to go beyond and create a connection with every customer. Actions speak louder than words. This is true for the WHOM policy on Capo's which have made them famous since the company started, Capo's underst ood in their early stages that the influence of â€Å"external effects† such as advertising or direct marketing, where not good enough tools to convince society to engage with the new rend of e-commerce.One of the mall problems with e-commerce Is trust (Specially In sass's), Capos managed to break the trust barrier by making themselves available 24/7 and by implementing one of the most flexible return policies in the market. This two elements take away the risk of buying online, since the client has the chance to give back the product if they don't like it or it doesn't fits, because of these, the buying experience Is just as if you go buy the same product on a store. Once the risk has been stable, capos creates value by providing an easier shopping experience here customer can go thru an online catalogue and buy from home.Retention By excellence in customer service, clients are constantly in a delight stage bringing high satisfaction levels since they receive way more than w hat they would expect from any other company and even from capos Itself! Client service and returned policies have created several switching cost, which enable them to retain their clients and also very important they created strong imitation barriers against competitors Evaluation cost – once the customer has tried and trust Capo's service, buying the risk, which makes it simpler Just to stay with capos.Benefit loss cost – This is not a â€Å"premium customer† benefit, but the generous return policy is given to every capos client, and it represents a big switching cost that might be stronger than strong price reductions, since the money being saved on buying the product, might not be worth nothing if they can't trust that the product will be delivered in time, with the quality expected, with a return policy, etc..Relational Switching Cost – The call center staff is instructed to create personal bonds with customers, even if it means to talk about non-pur chasing themes for hours, everything so that clients have a personal relationship with the brand (not only one staff member, but all of them) Development All these combined had created both attitudinal and behavioral loyalty, which translates into positive whom and continued repurchase habits. No matter the cost, the repurchase habits on clients must be kept specially if we take in mind that capos might constantly increase their product assortment.Having this in mind, even when the cost of the returned policy and the call center seem high, the company is investing in the Customer Lifetime Value, as said in the article, once a customer gets acquainted with the shopping experience thru Capos their repurchase levels increase as Capos keeps growing their catalogue it's assuring future purchases of their loyal customers. As seniority in clients grows so does their social value, which completes a cycle for new clients acquisitions by making WHOM a major drive for consumption in this indus try, thus making the investment on loyalty measures completely worthwhile. . Returned Merchandise Policy Capos brand has been built from gained trust from clients, this is what makes it exceptional, since it has created customer experience of delight that comes not only from exceptional operational process but from the service provided, making client's needs a first priority. As previously explained, the returned merchandise policy is a main component in the customer life cycle, not only is present in all stages, but its relevant for throughout acquisition, retention and development.As if it wasn't enough, this policy is crucial to the product value proposition and its a main differentiation factor from all competitors, since there's no other company that's so flexible on the returned researched. Customer equity, might be affected â€Å"negatively' by high acquisitions/retention costs, but rather than an expense, this should be counted as an investment (as Capos attract more custom ers induced by a social network effect.If Capos decided to cut down on returned policy, it would create a â€Å"dissatisfied effect† since as we had learned, the problem with delighting customers is that from now on this special treatment is now an expectation that if its not fulfill would bring to disappointment. Secondly, e-commerce is filled with competitors, big and small, you can find any kind f product assortment on the web and most importantly most of this companies try to attract their clients thru advertisement (mainly on web) and low prices.If Capos applied the same strategy, it might destroyed value, since it won't be able to differentiate from the rest of competitors that rely on publicity instead of being a one of a kind company that you will discover thru a very good referral. The proposition of cutting down on returned merchandise to invest on advertisement should be completely rejected, rather than advertise, it would be a better idea for the many to invest on social network management Just to make sure they are present and to empower their spokespersons to amplify the social network effect.The merchandise returned policy might have room for improvement for profitability purposes, we haven't been provided with the numbers, but for instance the time lapse of a one year could be cut down without having a big negative effect on clients, allowing the company to recognize profits accounting wise at an early stage. 3. Client Service by Ranking As discussed before, the call center is the key for profitability, since its the element hat creates a personal bond and the element of trust.If Capos decides to apply a distinctive service to their clients, they will no longer be providing an exceptional customer service, at least not to all of them. The commerce industry is still in the initial phase, they are new customers buying products for the first time, they are the late adopters and they might need an incentive to take this step. The call center is exactly what this potential customers need, they are interested enough to try to contact the company, they need to check that everything is legitimate and a good client service will assure them that they can trust Zapped.The call center is even more important for new clients, by applying a priority service based on seniority, Capos might lose a big share of their potential customers, since they will provide a disappointing first impression and some of them will defect even before they become customers. If the company is forced to cost reduction, they must do everything in their power to keep providing the excellence in customer service, because this is what the brand transmits to both new and current clients. By changing this factor, the brand will lose reduce its operational cost on logistics, their inventory, anything else before affecting client service.

Is Wal-Mart Good for America? Essay

This direct quote from Wal-Mart founder Sam Walton, was placed at the top of their website to nform its consumers of their general management philosophy. It is meant to instill a feeling of comfort that such an enormous multinational retailer still manages to hold on to its small town founder’s values. Provide people with the lowest possible prices on items that they need, whatever the cost. This slogan of always providing the lowest prices has made Wal-Mart the largest retailer on the planet and they generate billions of dollars in profit annually. But is Wal-Mart good for America? On the surface it would seem that providing a customer with an item at the lowest possible revailing question, one must more closely examine the mechanisms by which Wal- Mart is able to provide merchandise at such bargain basement prices. Providing people the lowest possible prices, whatever the cost. In this case, these low prices are being provided at the cost of the environment, Wal-Mart vendors, Wal-Mart employees, and even the American taxpayer. As the â€Å"Wal-Martization† of America is forcing businesses to outsource their Jobs oversees Just to stay solvent, it creates a problem here back home of people not being able to pay their bills and maintain adequate living standards. Is Wal-Mart creating the greatest good for the greatest number? Or are they Just creating the greatest good for their executives and investors? This reflection paper will attempt to analyze and answer these questions as we dive deep into the culture of Wal-Mart and its effect on society domestically, as well as globally. The two dominant points of view used to analyze corporations and their overall purpose could be summarized by the terms â€Å"stockholder† and â€Å"stakeholder† management. The former was championed by the well-known economist Milton Friedman. He believed that â€Å"a corporation’s primary and perhaps ole purpose is to maximize profits for stockholders†¦ † (Arnold, Beauchamp ; Bowie, 2013) Friedman would view Wal-Mart as a corporation that acts solely in the best interest of their stockholders. Wal-Mart is notorious for not paying their employees very high wages and not offering much to their employees in terms of retirement benefits and health care coverage. At least when compared to other successful competitors such as Costco, Wal-Mart clearly comes up short in this department. The latter point of view mentioned was made popular by Edward Freeman in his essay, â€Å"Managing for Stakeholders. In it he argues that â€Å"the primary responsibility of the executive is to create as much value for stakeholders as possible, and that no stakeholder interest is viable in isolation of the other stakeholders. (Freeman, 2007) When we speak of stakeholders, we are referring to the five basic groups that stand to gain or lose from corporations. These groups are customers, suppliers, employees, the local community and the stockholders. Freeman argues that no one stakeholder’s interest should be taken at the expense of the others and that all must be considered by a corporation when it comes to making the best decision. While the â€Å"Friedmanite† view has been seen as the classical dominant view on corporations and their purpose, the stakeholder view on management has been gaining speed over the last thirty years and cannot be underestimated or undervalued these days as companies struggle to stay competitive in a massive global economy. In terms of all stakeholders involved, both Friedman and Freeman would agree that Wal-Mart is acting in the best interest of their stockholders primarily. This benefit to the shareholders is at the expense of all the other stakeholders. The customers will suffer due to the lack of uality of items purchased. Wal-Mart outsources a great deal of their production to China to save on labor and production costs. As a result, the common saying â€Å"you get what you pay for† holds true. These items that Wal-Mart sells in their stores tend to be of inferior quality, and that â€Å"quality’ is passed on to the consumer. The employees suffer because they are not able to earn a decent wage to live on. According to an article written by Wayne Cascio, Decency Means More Than â€Å"Always Low Prices†: A Comparison of Costco to Wal-Mart’s Sam’s Club, he indicates that â€Å"The age is hardly enough to live on these days with gas prices where they are and the average cost of living going up. I know I couldn’t live on 10 dollars per hour. These low wages actually end up costing the American tax payer in the forms government assistance programs such as Medicaid and food stamps. In a study conducted by the Institute for Labor and Employment at the University of California, Berkeley, â€Å"taxpayers subsidized $20. million for medical care for Wal-Mart employees in that state alone. † (Cascio, 2006) Suppliers suffer because they are forced to accept the ontracts that Wal-Mart offers them to provide their products in their stores that essentially eat up their profits. The local community suffers because when a new Wal-Mart is built, smaller stores struggl e to stay competitive due to the fact they cant keep up with the prices that Wal-Mart charges for their product. They do not have the ability to outsource production and so they eventually go out of business. While Friedman and Freeman would believe that Wal-Mart is primarily serving the interests of their stockholders while disregarding all other stakeholders, John Boatright would ffer an alternative hypothesis on the issue. In his article, what’s wrong-and what’s right-with stakeholder management, he argues that â€Å"†¦ a business organization in which managers act in the interest of the shareholders can also be one that, at the same time, benefits all stakeholder groups. † (Boatright, 2013) He goes on to provide his definition of what a firm is and what their purpose should be. Boatright defines a firm â€Å"†¦ s a nexus of contracts between a legal entity called a firm and its various constituencies, which include employees, customers, suppliers, investors, and other roups. † (Boatright, 2013) It is believed that by each group providing their own services in a Joint effort with a firm, that the greatest financial return will be achieved. From Boa tright’s point of view, he would view the business philosophy of Wal-Mart as one that does benefit all the stakeholders. Customers benefit by having more purchasing power. They can walk into a Wal-Mart and purchase more items than they could at any other retailer.

Organisational behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Organisational behaviour - Essay Example However, different leadership theories have covered different aspects of leadership. If some theories have evolved from the previous leadership theories then some theories also oppose the key concepts of the other theories. The purpose of this report is to critically compare the strengths and limitations of two different approaches to theorizing leadership as sources of prescription for good managerial practice in organizations. The theories which I have selected for the critical analysis include Transformational Leadership Theory of Bass and Contingency Leadership Theory of Fiedler. The contingency theory has been presented by Fred Fiedler. Fred Fiedler was born in 1992 and he was recognised as one of the leading researchers in the industrial and organisational psychology of the 20th century (Righthealth). The transformational theory has been presented by James MacGregor who is an American historian and Politian and born in 1918 AD and recognised as a Pulitzer prize-winning Presiden tial biographer (S9.com). Both the contingency theory and transformation theory of leaderships are considered very significant to study the effectiveness of leaders in the organisational contexts. When Fiedler presented his theory of contingency, most of the work has been done on the traits and behaviours of the leaders to enhance the group performance. On the other hand, transformation theory of Bass highlighted the ways through which the leaders would be more influential and impact their followers. The contingency theory argues that effectiveness of leaders is increased when the traits and behaviours of leaders best match the situation whereas, transformational theory argues that leaders can influence the followers if they convey the individuals the importance of tasks, get their focus on organisational goals rather than

Discussion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 25

Discussion - Essay Example The cause of the fire outbreak was electrical fault (omoakala.blogspot.com, 2012). The myth of panic during fires means that in the incident of fire breakout, people get into panic and make their utmost effort to escape and save their own lives irrespective of others. Such a behavior is identified as a myth because this is not what normally happens during a disaster. There is a great deal of difference between the myth of panic and the actual behavior of people observed during the incident of a fire outbreak. In reality, people tend to help as many people as they can even if they have to put their own lives in danger for that. People help others around them before helping themselves. This behavior has been commonly observed during the disasters. For example, during the 9/11 attack, people not only helped their friends and relatives escape, but also the strangers (White, 2003). In the event of fire outbreak, occupants’ decision making is influenced by a whole range of factors including commitment, familiarity, role and responsibility, and social. The occupants cannot think of leaving people they are familiar with behind in trouble. They feel an intrinsic sense of commitment and moral obligation to God as well as other people to help the people. It seems just too out of place and selfish to just take care of one’s own life and forget one’s role and responsibilities toward others. Man is known to be a social animal. Likewise, the occupants’ decision making during a fire outbreak is affected by their social networks and links. Occupants’ individualistic traits like their age, gender, physical and mental capabilities play a fundamental role in the level of help they can extend to others during a fire outbreak. Certain occupants like children, women, and old men indeed need others’ help to escape since they cannot even help themselves whereas other

East Asiatic Company Nutrition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

East Asiatic Company Nutrition - Essay Example It is hoped that EAC will continue to grow and expand its business in the world markets in coming years. Economics of the infant nutrition industry means what are the financial considerations or economically significant aspects of the industry? The nutrition business mainly centers around the production and sale of milk powder and other products for newborn and growing children under the various brand names. The recent economic recession requiring an increase in the commodity prices because of rising cost of raw material has decreased the sale of EAC Nutrition in Thailand and Malaysia. There has been a decrease in the stock price on account of the investor’s lack of trust in the Asian economy and fear of neck-throat competition. Thanks to the successful restructuring of the company, the share price has increased during June 1998 in 2002.The management is making all-out efforts to further enhance stock price and to rebuild the confidence of stockholders in the company. A dynamic growth strategy ensuring that EAC would continue to grow and expand in the years to come is being chalk ed out. A new management team took over in 1998 and restored financial strength by shifting money from underperforming business units to viable units. As a result, business units amounting to over US $ 1.4bn (DKK 12bn) in annual sales and the US $36.4 million (DKK 300 million) in annual losses were profitably divested. In (2001) 25% of group sales were contributed by EAC nutrition and 34% of group operating profit with an EBIT margin between 8 to 10% were also given. Driven by the increase in GDP growth in many countries especially China, Singapore and India, the domestic market capacity for high-quality dairy products will go on escalating leading to higher demand of dairy products especially infant milk for large-scale production or joint ventures in collaboration with a local businessman.

Advertising strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Advertising strategies - Essay Example They may access the internet but locating Ads with ease and efficiency may be a difficult task. The development of print advertisement should be done with large prints in consideration that the elderly have poor vision or sight impairments. Sponsorship and partnership with relevant organizations are also required. For instance, funding activities in nursing homes and partnering with the institutions provide a significant marketing opportunity. The language or message used in the advertisement should have nostalgic features (Enis & Roering, 2012). The most effective type of exploratory research that should be used is depth interviews. In this approach, the questionnaire is developed in an open-ended way to increase the feedback depth of respondents (Shields & Rangarjan, 2013). In addition, the questionnaires objectives’ is not to develop a statistical result but rather a responsive feedback on the required marketing needs. The project would be more effective with the use of qualitative research. This is based on that; the bookstore is a new venture and acquiring the market perception and references would be more important that acquiring statistical data. The first step would be to locate a target market or relevant person likely to consume the provided services and products. Then development of open-ended would be done. The development of the questions should be based on the desires of the market and how the desires are relayed to the consumer (Shields & Rangarjan, 2013). The questionnaire would then be used in a depth interview

Smart backpack Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Smart backpack - Essay Example l phones and tablets as it provides them with a USB cable which they can freely and easily use to charge the gadgets while moving around whatever situations or places they are in at any time. The bag is perpetually designed to safely hold the gadgets since it has a limited capacity and thereby there are close to zero chances of moving parts. Moreover, the bag is very durable and has a potential of lasting four times than other ordinary back bags, hence giving individuals value and service for the money they use in the purchase. The smart back bag will be efficient for most of its users as they will have the first experience of using a fully modified back bag of the century. The bag will act as a source of power for mobile and tablet gadgets as it will have a battery that is installed in it to collect, preserve and produce power or electricity when needed. The bag will be able to function effectively during sunny days and average when there is no sun or partial sunlight. However, functioning will be less or none at all in winter conditions. The solar cell will be used in the smart black bag to absorb the suns energy and later convert it to power that can be used by different sorts of machines. Therefore the solar cell and solar technology will be used in the production and the invention of the new smart back bag. The bag will be fitted with concentrated solar power systems which will work to absorb and direct the suns energy and generate it into heat before passing it over to be stored in the battery of the smart back bag. Secondly, the solar systems in the smart back bag will also be fitted with transpired solar collectors and solar water heating systems which will function to produce heat to be used as power for recharging cell phones and tablets. The cell phones and tablets will be either charged directly by the solar systems installed in the bag or via the battery which has been charged by the solar energy, anyway is still effective. This will reduce the

Simple Recipe Of Making Macaroni And Cheese Essay

Simple Recipe Of Making Macaroni And Cheese - Essay Example The only thing you should be aware of is that before making any dish you should always wash your hands and clean yourself so as not to contaminate the dish and make a healthy and fresh one. After this process of approximately 15 minutes, you will have a yummy, fresh and ready to eat a meal of macaroni and cheese. The first and foremost step is to boil the macaroni and for that, you will need to take a medium-sized pan and fill it with six cups of water. Make sure that the water does not flow out when the noodles are poured in the water. Place this pan over the stove and turn it to the highest temperature then wait for the water to boil. While waiting, use your time constructively and efficiently by gathering all the ingredients and utensils needed for this dish. This is done to make sure that they are on the counter, at hand ready to be used when needed. The ingredients include a 1/4th cup of milk, 1/4th cup of margarine, macaroni noodles from the box and cheese sauce mix which is also provided in the box. The utensils needed are a strainer for draining the macaroni after it is boiled. By this time, the water must have started boiling if large bubbles are constantly rising on the surface of the pan. The process of boiling the water will probably take around seven to ten minutes. Now put the d ry noodles from the box into this pan of boiling water and keep stirring the noodles so they do not stick to the bottom of the pan. Make sure to use a plastic spoon and not a metal one to avoid the risk of burning your hand. Don’t leave the stove unattended or else the macaroni might stick together or even become softened. You can even check the macaroni by tasting it and once it reaches the perfect texture and density, you can then drain it.

Image of the Native American Essay Example for Free

Image of the Native American Essay In this brief introduction, the image of Native Americans can perhaps be overly simplified that all Europeans treated them bad. That is not the case because many native people were friendly and wanted to share with their newfound friends. Somehow, the circumstances began to go wrong for some Europeans and natives. This essay will discuss three main points about the depiction of the natives and their relationship with the Europeans. A. Christopher Columbus story of dealings with the Native people in Hispaniola. B. Even Bradford discusses his first contact and the Indian’s aloofness. C. Additionally, the difference in the illustration of Native Americans compared to Columbus and Bradford. Unsurprisingly, Columbus made friends with some of the native tribes in Hispaniola, although many of his comrades resented his relationship with the native people. Those tribes did not show any antagonism or aggression towards the new arrivals in the beginning. Yet, the situation between the natives and the Europeans took a turn for the worst; the Europeans ordered them to relinquish all gold metal and to supply women from their tribes (Baym, 2008, p.24). As time passes, Columbus resurfaced in 1494 scrutinizing the untenable state of affairs of the natives forcefully submitting to an unruly and disagreeable group of settlers. This on-going problem with the Europeans brought no hope for the natives to establish a friendly and equal long lasting relationship. However, Columbus discussion of the problems in Hispaniola, were alike in various ways compared to Bradford’s account of the natives. Similarly, Bradford discussed their encounter with the Native American as fleeting in the beginning. Their search for other people like themselves proved unsuccessful because no other Europeans were in the surrounding area other than nearby Natives. Some Native people kept hiding or running away from Bradford and his party most likely having to do with earlier problems with infectious diseases (Baym2008, p. 64). As things began to progress for the Separates, some of their tools were stolen by the natives and was unable to retrieve them back until they met with a native that spoke a little English (baym, 2008, p. 68). This native was known as Samoset, who came directly into their place of dwelling and spoke have hearted English to communicate with the Pilgrims. Thereby, establishing an open relationship with the Natives, which brought a new beginning for â€Å"Thanksgiving† between the Pilgrims and native people through sharing and thanking God (Baym, 2008, p. 71). Nonetheless, the contrast was quite different in the â€Å"Contact and Conflict section† compared to Bradford and Columbus. Moreover, many Native Americans communicated and formed friendships with prominent leaders in the military. Military leaders such as Sir Jeffery Amherst and Henry Gladwin did not honor the same alliance the Natives had with the French because of their personal hatred (Baym, 2008, p. 207). However, this interpretation of the â€Å"Native American Contact and Conflict† (baym, 2008, p. 206) does differ from Columbus first contact and Bradford’s friendship with the natives. Despite the conflict with some of the high officials among the British military, the natives continued to remain friendly and neutral. Yet, the natives began conforming to the ways of the Europeans by reading and writing through Samson Aukom. As a result, he believed this would help his people to communicate effectively and have a closer relationship with God (Baym, 2008, p. 210). However, Pontiac dreamed his people had left their old ways and their French brothering for the new way of the British people. In Conclusion, the deceit and deception against the natives were not among all Europeans. A select few did not want the Native American people to live on the land the British wanted for the crown. Even the mutinous Spaniards tried forcing natives to submit, as slaves did not hold well with Columbus. Additionally, Bradford’s account reveal many times the native people could have been attacked, but later they were openly embraced to form long lasting friendships. Based on Nina baym’s account of the natives, not all native people were mistreated, but other Spaniards did mistreat some of the people. It was a time of curiosity and new territory for both sides, although they worked very hard to maintain their bond. Nonetheless, the relationship between the Native Americans has been rectified, although many died during a time of exploring and creating new foundations on both sides.

Antidepressant Case Study Essay Example for Free

Antidepressant Case Study Essay The debate over antidepressants has waged on for over more than half a century. Two heads of the Department of Psychiatry in Washington University discovered that depression was just as much biological as it was physiological meaning that people with depression had an abnormal chemical make-up in the brain. This discovery increased the demand for research on methods to alter this abnormality effectively and efficiently. Thus antidepressants were created, sparking a psychiatric revolution. Antidepressants work by blocking the reuptake of serotonin. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that is responsible for controlling human emotions. Our bodies make serotonin naturally but some particles are lost on the neuron, which is called reuptake. Antidepressants block the reuptake by placing a protein wall on the neuron, enabling a greater consumption of serotonin in the brain (Greenburg Manufacturing). From their creation, antidepressants have given people a chance to recapture the enjoyment they once, or never, had. They help people find their goals, rediscover their futures, and enjoy special moments in life that should be cherished. Antidepressants should be prescribed to individuals suffering from depression because they are simple, safe, and effective. In years prior to the development of antidepressants, depression was treated through drastic hospitalization. Hospitalization involved patients enduring painful treatments such as electrotherapy and/or a lobotomy (Richard 54). In electrotherapy, an individual is pinned down to a bed and shocked whenever a negative or suicidal thought comes to mind. A lobotomy is an unpleasant form of brain surgery that involves a surgeon using a long rod to rewire brain functions. While these forms of treatment are grueling and pose a great risk to the health of the patient, they are successful in reconstructing the chemical make-up in oneâ€⠄¢s brain, which is a necessary component in curing most forms of depression. These forms of treatment are expensive, complicated, and time consuming. Medications, on the other hand, do not demand a lot of time and are easily swallowed. Taking these medications is simple, easy and only requires a doctor’s prescription, which can be easily received upon an appointment. This form of treatment is quite simple, and is much less burdensome than treatment solely based on therapy. Therapy can be quite costly and, without the addition of antidepressants, ineffective. In order for it to be effective the child must meet with a professional twice a week (Martin 574). According to the American Academy of Psychology an average therapy session costs $150. In order to properly treat depression effectively via therapy and non-drug related means the patient requires up to one to three years of treatment. At $300 a week the individual will be spending $15,600 a year and $46,800 over three years. With medication, comes a cheaper and less complicated means of treatment. Under medications, the average patient requires meeting one to two times per every two weeks at the same average cost of $150. This comes out to $3900 per year versus the $15,600 through just treatment. Although there is the cost of medications, the total cost for using medication and therapy is significantly cheaper than using just therapy. With antidepressants, treatment for depression becomes simply and easy to accomplish, making the road to recovery that much more achievable. Many individuals feel skeptical about taking antidepressants because they are a human-made substance, and they are full of chemicals. While this is true, the effects medications have on the body is different from person to person. From its creation antidepressants have had some serious side affects, scaring people away. Today, 118 million people use antidepressants and between 1995 and 2002, the use of these drugs rose 48 percent (Cohen Antidepressants). Also this shows that people have been adjusting to these drugs, and that people see less risk in taking them. Many of the 118 million people on antidepressants have depression, but there are also many people take them for the other reasons. Antidepressants have known to help people quit smoking. (New York Psychiatric) writes, â€Å"Nicotine may have antidepressant effects that maintain smoking for some smokers. Antidepressants may substitute for this effect† (New York Psychiatric). These individuals take the drug as a safe means to quit smoking. Scientifically antidepressants contain bupropion hydrochloride, a chemical known for dissolving the nicotine addiction (New York Psychiatric). A smoker develops an addiction because nicotine is a powerful drug that speeds up the brain and central nervous system. It triggers the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter in your brain, boosting one’s mood. Over time the brain adjusts to the increase of dopamine and the smoker becomes addicted. Antidepressants help by stabilizing the elevated levels of dopamine in the brain by having increased levels of the opposite neurotransmitter, serotonin absorbed. Also these drugs are safe to take because the FDA continuously runs tests to validate the drug’s safety. The FDA’s article on improving pediatric and child health states, â€Å"FDA has been committed to addressing the special considerations needed for assessing medical products for children and young adults. These include science to address how development, age and growth may affect how treatments work and effect health outcomes in children† (FDA Improving). Individuals everywhere take these drugs for a variety of reasons, and rarely do they harm an individual. There are many unexplained reasons an individual suffers from depression, but two theories the Monoamine Hypothesis and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Cortisol Theory, are prevalent in most cases of depression, and they explain the biological problems that cause depression (Koplewicz More). The first theory, the Monoamine Hypothesis, was formulated in the 1960’s as a way to show how other chemicals in the brain inhibit serotonin. (Koplewicz More) explains, â€Å" The monoamine (MAO) metabolites act as inhibitors, preventing serotonin and norepinephrin from crossing the synapse. In succession to this theory these MAO metabolites appear to be more prevalent in depressed patients† (Belmaker Future). The second theory, Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Cortisol Theory, was developed shortly after the Monoamine Hypothesis. This theory explains that the amount of cortisol produced is reduced in individuals suffering from depression. These two theories are seen in over 66% of cases of depression (Belmaker Future). This number encompasses the largest population of individuals suffering from depression, thus proving depression is largely a chemical imbalance ailment in the brain. Because depression is a chemical imbalance, it can only be cured through certain means of treatment specializing in chemical reconstruction. Such treatments require the proper equipment and chemicals that therapy or other forms of treatment cannot supply. The combination of both antidepressants and therapy is proven to be the most effective means of curing depression. Author George Burns, in his book, Happiness, Healing, Enhancement: Your Casebook Collection for Applying Positive Psychology in Therapy writes, â€Å"43% more patients suffering from depression were cured with the combination of therapy and medication than patients only undergoing only one form of treatment† (Burns 47). The individuals undergoing both verbal therapy and drug therapy recover more often and faster than patients only undergoing one form of treatment. Antidepressants are an effective means of curing depression because they are easy to use, safe, and effective. Antidepressants come mainly in a pill form and work most effectively alongside therapy or other forms of treatment. For an individual with depression who does not consume antidepressant medication, treatment can be difficult, time consuming, and expensive. These pills are easy to ingest and require the patient to do less work by the patient. On top of that, they have been frequently tested by professionals, and are safe in most individuals. Symptoms vary from user to user, however, they typically they do not cause bodily harm. Depression comes in many forms, but in most cases depression is a chemical imbalance in the brain. With this information and are known effects antidepressants have on the brain, it is evident that these drugs are extremely effective and much more effective than solely therapeutic treatment.

Sociology Essays Researcher Power Relations

Sociology Essays Researcher Power Relations How do power relations challenge us to re-think the issue of dialogue in research, ethicsand critical urban ethnography? Sociological research is not theclearly defined process that the textbooks would have us believe. It can be amessy business and is fraught with pitfalls so the researcher needs to beflexible in his/her approach to the project. Power relationships emerge as anissue right from the beginning. There are the power relations contained within social institutions and in personal relationships. The relationship between theresearcher and the researched is generally thought of as one of unequal powerrelations where the researcher is the custodian of expertise concerning themeaning of a research subjects experiences. The balance of power may not,however, be in the researchers hands at the beginning of a project, if theresearcher needs to gain access to a setting then he/she may be subject to thewhims of gatekeepers. Gatekeepers have the power to say no the researchersrequest and if you do manage to gain entry it is often at the end of a longslow process. Lofland and Lofland (1984) say that feelings of anxiety when aresearcher first encounters gate keepers, is not unusual because they hold thereins of power. Bogdan and Taylor (1984) write about problems with gatekeepers.They argue that there are those professionals in charge of establishments suchas retirement homes or womens refuges, who exercise their power by monitoringwho should and should not visit. In this way they retain control of the spaceoccupied by the people they care for and in controlling their space alsocontrol the influences of and within that space. Giddens 2001 has argued that thechanges in modern society have, in their turn, brought vast changes to the waywe live our lives: The development ofmodern cities has had an enormous impact, not only on habits and modes ofbehaviour, but on patterns of thought and feeling. >From the time whenlarge urban agglomerations first formed, in the eighteenth century, views aboutthe effects of cities on social life have been polarized (Giddens,2001:573). Hammersley (2000) has argued that social research cannot be understood outside of the social world that itstudies. It does not exist in some autonomous realm, but affects, and isaffected by other factors in society. Beginning with a brief explanation of keyterms this paper will give a brief description of the long and hotly contesteddebate that frames the quantitative/qualitative divide within researchdiscourse. This should demonstrate that even before a researcher frames aresearch question they have to contend with the powerful discourse that says social research should be undertaken in a scientific manner if it is to producemeaningful data. The paper will examine the question of how power relationschallenge us to re-think the issue of dialogue in research, ethics and criticalurban ethnography. The main focus with regard to how knowledge is acquired, andhow, like research, it is intimately connected with relations of power, will beon feminist work. The final part of the paper will d eal with power relations,dialogue and ethics in the context of critical urban ethnography. Epistemology An epistemological concern is onethat raises the question of what might be regarded as acceptable knowledge in adiscipline. Central to this point is whether it is feasible to study the socialworld in the same way and using the same principles as science (Bryman, 2004).Research undertaken in this way is generally associated with a positivistparadigm of research. Positivism Positivism is most closelyassociated with the work of Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim. Positivism is anepistemological standpoint that argues for the application of the scientificmethod to the social world. It is usually (though not always) associated withquantitative research and the collection of statistics. Positivism is,therefore, very closely associated with the scientific method which, looselyput, is based around the laws of cause and effect. Bryman (2004) identifies theaspects of positivism in the following ways, only those things that we canobserve through our senses can really be known. Theory (speculations about whatmight be the case) is used to generate hypotheses (general statements) that canbe tested and from which laws can be derived. The hypothesis is subjected toquestions e.g. who, what, when, where and data gathered either throughinterviews, observation, or using existing data such as crime statistics. Ifthe findings confirm the hypothesis then laws are derived, if not then the hypothesishas to be modified. This process continues until a suitable conclusion isreached that confirms the modified hypothesis. Positivists state that sciencemust be objective and value free (Bryman, A. 2004).Durkheim argued that in order to be scientific and to obtain objectiveknowledge, social facts should be counted as things, and that allpreconceptions must be eradicated (Durkheim, E, 1938:31).Scientific statements should be the interest of the scientist because they arethe only statements that can be confirmed by the senses i.e. science proceedsthrough observable, repeatable experiments.. It is this form of research in particularthat feminists have dubbed malestream research (Abbott and Wallace,1997) they argue that: Many malestream sociologistsare resistant to the view that there is a need for a reconceptualisation.Nevertheless, this is the position that w accept and while we recognise thatthis is an uphill struggle we think that it is a necessary one if we are toachieve an adequate sociology (Abbott and Wallace, 1997:13). Interpretivism This is the opposite view topositivism where a research strategy is needed that respects the fact thatthere is a difference between the physical world and people. The scientificmethods that are used to study the physical world may not be appropriate tostudying the social world where the sociologist is trying to understand the meaningsthat people give to their actions. Interpretivists most often use qualitativeresearch methods consisting of unstructured interviews and participantobservation. Positivists criticise research data gained in this way asunscientific and subjective. They argue that the findings from such research donot have the same validity or reliability as data collected in a scientificmanner (Bryman, 2004). Researchers who use qualitative methods tend to maketheir research process as transparent as possible and will often ask theirresearch subjects to check the findings to see whether they are an accuraterepresentation of the persons life. Both types of researchers want toknow what is happening in society but interpretivists also attempt tounderstand. Weber (1947) maintained that sociology is a Science which attempts theinterpretive understanding of social action in order to arrive at a causalexplanation of its cause and effects (Weber, 1947:88). Qualitative researchers tend tomake use of unstructured interviews, case study research and participantobservation. Ethnographic methods such as in-depth interviews and prolongedparticipant observation are also favoured methods. These last tend to be usedmore often by those who are engaged in critical research. Hammersley (1992)criticises the use of ethnographic methods because he believes that this typeof research is less able to produce data that will result in useful theoreticalinsights. Participant observation is regarded by positivists as unscientificand not rigorous enough they regard it as subjective. Hammersley (1992) hasargued that because ethnographers can produce different accounts of the samesetting then the results of such research might be said to reflect a purelypersonal perspective rather than a scientific and reliable account.Yet anothercriticism of this type of method is that the ensuing account is the result ofhighly selective methods of data collection (Hammersley , 1992). This isarguably a nonsensical criticism as all research is the result of a set ofselection processes. The researcher constantly has to decide what is the bestway of collecting the information that will answer the research question. Thishappens in what is regarded as scientific and value free social research justas much as it does in social research that does not claim to be objective andvalue free. All researchers, as Gouldner (1971) points out have to make choicesabout their domain of enquiry i.e. when, where, how, and from whom they aregoing to obtain their data. There is a clear difference betweenscience and the scientific method and the methods that are needed toinvestigate the social world. For human beings, human action is meaningful andthey act on the basis of that meaning. The sociologists job is to interpretthe social world from the research subjects point of view. What this means isthat far from research being objective and knowledge being objective and valuefree, they are in fact marked by the stamp of their producers. Marx recognisedthis in his analysis of capitalism and feminists have recognised this in theiranalysis of patriarchy and of an epistemological stance that bears the stampand is endowed with the power of the white western male. Thus power relationsare evident even before we begin on the actual research process. Knowledge and Power The rationalistattitudes towards knowledge that developed during the Enlightenment remaineddominant until well into the nineteenth century. They were, as many feministshave argued (Abbott and Wallace, 1997), a powerful force in determining whatconstituted knowledge and have had considerable effect on the structures ofmodern society. A similar critique of knowledge has also been mounted by theFrench philosopher Michel Foucault (1966). The work ofthinkers such as Nietzsche (1886) and Foucault (1966) has emphasised the factthat knowledge is intimately tied to structures of power and domination.Foucault argues that it is power which produces and sustains knowledge.Anything that contradicts the authorised view of what counts as knowledge isseen as deviant and transgressional. Thus, he argues, Power isthat which says no. Any confrontation with power thus conceived appears only astransgression (1966: 53). Feministcriticisms of knowledge and the way that knowledge is produced are aconfrontation with power and authority. The tendency of many thinkers toneglect class, race, gender, and economic factors contributes to the exclusionof oppressed and marginal viewpoints thus further reinforcing bothuniversalistic and objective models of knowledge and the power structures associatedwith this view. Foucault has argued that the enlightenment model of scientificreason only existed through the will to objectify and dominate. For Foucault,this kind of knowledge is inseparable from the desire for power. He argues thatresearch into criminality or mental illness is often undertaken for the expresspurposes of legislation, and not for a desire for improvement in these areas(1966). These critiques of the structures of power have meant thatepistemological questions are now a central issue within contemporary culture(Lennon and Whitford, 1994). The writings of Marx (1970), Foucault (1966), andmembers of t he Frankfurt school (and in a different context liberationtheologians) emphasise the fact knowledge claims are a reflection of theinterests of those with economic power. More recently, black scholars andscholars from the third world have also indicated the Eurocentric and racistnature of most knowledge production (Lennon and Whitford, 1994). The separationof fact from value in knowledge production is not appropriate, that is to sayknowledge is not objective and neutral. Rather, knowledge bears the stamp ofits producers and is affected by their value systems. It is through thisunderstanding that feminist and other forms of critical research developed. Critical Research Carspecken(1996) maintains that critical research is aimed at exposing the powerrelationships at work in society particularly as they relate to social inequalities. The researcher studies this from the viewpoint of the oppressedin the hope of achieving social change. Critical research is informed by thecritical theory of the Frankfurt School. Critical social research does not fitwell into either the positivist camp or the interpretive one but embraces allthose approaches which tend to criticise society (in terms of its powerrelationships for example) in order to transform it. Hammersley (1995) hasargued that the growing influence of qualitative research and most particularlyof the type of research that is critical of power structures and of theinequalities that exist within society has meant that increasingly the basisfor seeing social research as scientific has been undermined. Harvey (1990) hassaid of critical research that: critiqueis an integral part of the processA critical research process involves morethan appending critique to an accumulation of fact or theory gathered throughsome mechanical process, rather it denies the objective status of knowledge (Harvey,1990 quoted in Haralambos et al, 2000:982). Knowledge inthese terms is a process that is never finished because the social world isconstantly changing. Knowledge is inseparable from the values of the socialcontext in which it emerged, the research participants, and most importantly,the researcher. The knowers always affect what is known as Ely et al (1996)argue: Researchlike all other knowing, is a transactional process the knower and the knownboth act upon each other (Ely, et al, 1996:196 ibid.). Criticalresearch is primarily concerned with uncovering oppression and oppressivestructures and by that action transforming them. By uncovering these structureswithin social accounts the critical researcher can then link these with widersocial processes and structures. Thus Oakleys analysis of housework and howwomen bear the brunt of it links back to industrialisation and the rise ofcapitalism and womens removal from the public world of work to the privatesphere of the home, this also links with the growth of patriarchal oppressionof women (Harvey, 1990). Thus a critical analysis such as this can uncover thebasis of some of the power relationships that exist within society andeventually to change them. Harvey (1990) says of this process that it: ..involvesa constant questioning of the perspective and analysis the researcher isbuilding up. It is a process of gradually, and critically, coming to knowthrough constant reconceptualisation. This means that the selection of a coreconcept for analysis is not a once and for all affair (Harvey, 1990:30). Harvey (1990)maintains that critical research does not depend on any one method becauseresearchers may often use a variety of methods in ensuring that they have madethe connections with wider social processes such as the structures of power,and also to increase the reliability of their findings. Feminist research alsooperates by the use of a number of different research methods, feminists are moreconcerned with improving womens lives and with the non-exploitation of thosewho are researched, than they are with the commitment to any one set of methods.Some (primarily male) researchers argue against feminist research because theysay that it is subjective and partisan. They argue that research should neverbe partisan and that it is impossible for everyone to be equally free, theremust always be some hierarchy. Thus Geuss (1981) contends that: It seems unrealistic underpresent conditions of human life to assume that any and every preference humanagents might have can be satisfied, or to assume that all conflict between thepreferences of different agents will be peacefully and rationally resolved.Some frustration-even some imposed frustration-of some human preferences mustbe legitimate and unexceptionable (Guess, 1981:16). Presumably thelegitimate and unexceptionable preferences are the prerogative of the male, whofor centuries has had some much power over womens lives. It is this kind ofpower that feminists are keen to expose, they are also concerned about thepower relationships which exist between the researcher and the researched, andwhich have sometimes been exploited by (male) researchers. In view of this somefeminists argue that participatory research, where the researcher and theresearched work together on a project, should be a defining feature of feministresearch. Abbott and Wallace (1997) argue however, that this is not often donebecause, it is notpossible for the researcher to share her knowledge and expertise, and to implythat she is sharing them conceals a power relationship rather than overcomingit (Abbott and Wallace, 1997:288). Feminists who douse these methods argue that participatory research not only gives women a moreactive role in knowledge production but further increases the validity of theresearch findings. McGuire (1987), has this to say Participatoryresearch proposes returning to ordinary people the power to participate inknowledge creation, the power that results from such creation, and the power toutilize knowledge (Maguire, 1987:39). Even this statement isproblematic because the researcher has at least some training in how researchmight be said to proceed and this is not easily passed on to those who are nottrained (Abbott and Wallace, 1997). Mies, 1983 has this to say: the study of an oppressivereality is not carried out by experts but by the objects of the oppression.People who were before objects of research become subjects of their ownresearch and action. This implies that scientists who participate in this studyof the conditions of oppression must give their research tools to the people (Mies,1983:16). Shared experiences, it might beargued, help to balance out the power relationships that feminists such asAbbott and Wallace (1997) contend, inevitably exist between a researcher andthose who are researched. One way in which the researcher may try to lessen thepower differential is through self-disclosure. Thus recovering alcoholics whoare researching alcohol misuse or women who have survived domestic violenceinterviewing women who are being abused would make the interviewee aware of thefact. While it maybe impossible to do away with the power differentialaltogether, it does make it less problematic. Ann Oakley (1982) has writtenthat, the goal of finding outabout people through interviewing is best achieved when the relationship ofinterviewer and interviewee is non- hierarchical and when the interviewer isprepared to invest his or her own personal identity in the relationship (Oakley,1982:41). This power differential thatexists in the research relationship may also colour what is found because datais never free of the influence of the person who gathered it. Carspecken (1996)believes that although critical researchers may have a value commitment that isnot to say that the research needs to be biased providing it is systematic andcareful. Stanley and Wise have this to say, .the recognition that whoa researcher is, in terms of their sex, race, class, and sexuality, affectswhat they find in research and is as true of feminists as of any other researchers(Stanley and Wise, 1993:228). This power differential willalso affect, and may distort the dialogue between the researcher and theresearched. Abbott and Wallace (1997) argue that because the researcher willnecessarily involve herself with the women she is studying then she needs to beaware of this. Constant reflexivity is required if the research is to beconsidered valid. The researcher must be aware that because she is a part ofwhat is going on this inevitably affects what is going on and there needs to bea continual taking stock of how personal values, attitudes and perceptions areinfluencing the research process. A feministinterviewing women is by definition both inside the culture andparticipating in that which she is observingpersonal involvement is morethan dangerous bias it is the condition under which people come to know eachother and to admit others into their lives (Oakley,1982:58). Aronson (1992) has pointedout that the ethnographic interview is a common method of gathering data inqualitative research. Interviewing is also a method which is favoured byfeminist researchers (Oakley, 1982; Stanley and Wise, 1993). The interviewprocess should be such that women feel at ease and can relate their experiencesas they see them. The interviewer should encourage the participation of theinterviewee, the aim of which is to conduct research with women rather than onwomen. In this way it is thought that a fuller picture of womens experiencesemerges (Oakley, 1981 et al). Carspecken (1996) argues that one way ofminimising any distortions that may arise due to the power differential betweenresearcher and researched is to check out your findings with the researchparticipants. Differences may also arise here if the dialogue between theresearcher and the research participants has been awkward or untruthful in anyway there may be objections when the participant sees what has been wr itten.Seeing this distorted dialogue in print may increase any feelings ofpowerlessness that the participant might have and thus renegotiating thedialogue may prove difficult. Ethics At the very least ethics areconcerned with protecting the anonymity of those who are participating in theresearch. This is vital if for example the participants are women who haveexperienced rape or domestic abuse as any such exposure of their true identitycould put them at further risk. Many researchers, not just feministresearchers, also regard the use of non-sexist language as an ethicalprinciple. Sexist language is exclusionary and denotes the power relationshipsthat have for centuries existed in patriarchal society. Relationships that arein some way based on power are prone distortions in communication and it is upto the critical researcher to be aware of these sources of distortion as amatter of ethical principle. Carpecken (1996) thus believes that researchersshould: Establish supportive,non-authoritarian relationships with the participants in your study. Activelyencourage them to question your own perceptions. Be sure that participants areprotected from any harm that your study could produce, and be sure that theyknow they are protected (Carpecken, 1996:90). There isconsiderable contemporary debate about what constitutes ethical research. Thisis particularly the case with sensitive areas and with feminist methodologies(Abbott and Wallace, 1997). Feminist researchers are concerned with the ideathat the people who are the major part of many research undertakings should notbe exploited. As I have stated previously, feminist researchers are concernedwith the researched. Relationships between researchers and their human subjectsare often continued long after work in the field has finished (Ely et al,1996). The majority of feminists are conscious that the research relationshipis a two-way process. Researchlike all other knowing, is a transactional process the knower and the knownboth act upon each other (Ely, et al, 1996:196 ibid.). Many feministsregard it as crucially important that women who are more oppressed andmarginalised than they themselves are given a voice for their experiences. Theyargue that some, (predominantly male) researchers have used respondents asobjects to be worked on (Reinharz, 1983; Abbott and Wallace, 1997). In manycases there is no further contact with the people they have worked with oncethe research process is finished. Feminists have said that this kind of researchis conducted on a rape model. The researcherstake, hit, and run, with a total disregard for the needs of the researched.They intrude into their subjects privacy, disrupt their perceptions, utilisefalse pretences, manipulate the relationships, and give little or nothing inreturn. When the needs of the researchers are satisfied, they break off contactwith the subjects (Reinharz, 1983:80). The issue of giving oppressed andmarginalised women a voice has been identified by black feminists, as anethical matter. This is because black womens voices are the most marginal ofall womens voices in the academy, and the current educational systemreinforces the values and culture of the dominant classes, thereby ensuringtheir continued domination and the covert exercise of power (Hill-Collins, P,1990). In view of these ethical questions, many feminists are conscious of theneed to put something back in, whether by the payment of a fee, or ofcontributing to work in the community. More recently however ethical questionshave also concerned researcher safety. Is it ethical to allow a lone (possiblyfemale) researcher to venture into settings where the power relationships thatpertain in such a setting may put that researcher at risk. Power and ethics areclosely entertwined. Covert participant observation (whereby the researcherdoes not disclose their true role and reasons for being in the setting) isoften regarded as unethical and a misuse of researcher power becauseparticipants are not given the chance to give their informed consent to the research.It is also regarded as privacy violation (Bryman, 2004). Thus the powerrelationships that are, or might be at work in the research relationship needto be acknowledged at all stages of the research process and before decisionsabout how the research is undertaken are formalised. Research, particularly qualitative research is not just composed of a setof facts drawn from a number of suitably phrased questions. It is madeup of all the seemingly unrelated bits and pieces that are part of humanrelationships (Ely et al, 1996). Critical Urban Research The most famous urban research is that of the Chicago school in the 1920sand 30s. Robert Park was the central figure here and his main concerns werewith the effects of social and cultural forces on human nature. Park and hiscolleagues recognised two levels of behaviour the biotic and the cultural. Thebiotic level concerned mechanisms of survival and competition and the culturalwas concerned with how the human subject was constituted (Dickens, 1990). Urbanresearch is concerned with how the city influences those who inhabit it and howit shapes their lives. Giddens has argued that the space people occupy has tobe taken into account when studying social life because social interaction isnot aspatial, it has to take place somewhere. This somewhere Giddens designatesa locale. Localesrange from a room in a house, or street corner, the shopfloor of a factory,towns and cities to the territorially demarcated areas occupied by regionstates. But they are typically internally regionalised (Giddens, 1984). The Chicago school was highly influential on the way in which streetsociety was studied. Jacobs (1961) undertook what became a classical study ofGreenwich Village when she studied the everyday behaviour and relationships ofpeople on the sidewalk. In the nineteen-ninetees Duneier (1999) wanted todiscover how sidewalk life had changed in the intervening years. He studied thelife of pan handlers and street vendors to see whether and in what ways itscharacter might have changed. Duneier started out as a voyeur and customer at abookstall in Greenwich Village and it was there that he noticed the tenor ofsidewalk life. His primary informant was the bookseller who at first wasreluctant to take part in the research. When he eventually wrote up hisfindings and submitted the manuscript for publication he was not comfortableeven though he had invited his informant to read the manuscript and comment onit. He eventually co-opted the informant to co-teach with him about life on thestreet for a Blac k American. Duneier believed that not only would this adjustthe imbalance in power relationships in research more adequately but thatstudent feedback and comments on the course might allow him to remedy anyshortcomings of the original research. Duneier had faced a number of challenges during the course of researchsuch as gaining access to the culture and the confidence of those who lived andworked on the streets. He had trouble fitting in because of the obvious powerdifferentials of class and race as well as the inequality of the researchrelationship (adapted from Giddens, 2001 pps 652-655). Duneiers researchparticipants were among the least powerful of society. The way in which modernsocieties operate what Giddens (2001) has called a geography of centrality andmarginality where affluence and abject poverty co-exist made the lives ofDuneiers research participants unliveable. He was worried whether he wasimposing an agenda on his research participants that would make their liveseven more problematic. What Duneiers research revealed was that the socialresearcher has to take account of the wider social context and processes ofwhich he/she is a themselves a part. Mac an Ghaills critical ethnography ofheterosexual and homosexual young men also tries to reduce the powerdifferential between researcher and research participants and to be as open andethically aware as possible though collaboration, reciprocity and reflexivity(Haralambos et al, 2000). Conclusion This paper has examined how power relationships in research impact at alllevels of the research process and affect the dialogue between the researcherand the research participants and the ethical considerations that are part ofsocial research. It has also attempted to show how these processes can severelyaffect the undertaking of critical urban ethnography. Duneiers work inparticular demonstrates how power relationships operate at all levels inresearch and how decisions that have been made (for example the changinggeography of the urban environment) which neither the researcher nor researchparticipants have any control over can affect the outcomes of the research anda researchers own sense of his personal ethical commitment to the people whomay have participated in the research. There are a number of reasons why thisis important. Those scholars who are critical of this type of research oftenfail to acknowledge that the scientific paradigm is also beset with these kindsof issues and p roblems but fails to take them into account. This is what Popper(1992) called the theory of demarcation whereby any variables that do not fitwith the theory are ruled out of the equation. Duneier and others explicitrecounting of the problematic nature of undertaking social research thatcontributes to knowledge, is committed to social transformation, and at thesame time is aware the pitfalls that can occur when researching the lives ofthose who are already disenfranchised by society. There may never be a completeanswer to addressing the issue of power relationships in social research but Iwould wish to argue that the researcher who neglects the fact that such thingsexist and influence all research is failing to give an accurate account of thesocial reality that he/she is investigating. 5000 words Bibliography Abbott, P andWallace, C (1997) An Introduction to Sociology, Feminist Perspectives Routledge,London. Aronson, J. (1992). Theinterface of family therapy and a juvenile arbitration and mediation program,.Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Nova Southeastern University, FortLauderdale, FL . Bilton, T. etal, 1996. Introductory Sociology, London, Macmillan (Ch. 13). Bogdan, R andBilklen, S (1982) Qualitative Research for Education: An Introduction toTheory and Methods, Allyn and Bacon, Boston Bogdan, R andTaylor, S (1984) Introduction to Qualita

European Commission’s Proposal on Software Patents :: Technology Computers Essays

European Commission’s Proposal on Software Patents The European Commission should maintain and clarify its limitations on patents for software, to fight against American mega companies attempting to globally monopolize software, to avoid the mistakes the United States has made, and to potentially let Europe emerge as a software mecca, where software can continue to make significant advancements. This viewpoint can be supported with several ethical considerations, including Ethical Egoism, Utilitarianism, and Pluralism. General View on Software Patents Purpose of a Patent Patents have a dual role in our society. An invention or new creation should be shared with the public and peers to enrich the public body of technical knowledge. In return, society rewards inventors for their efforts by giving a monopolistic control over the invention. In general, patents cover a practical implementation of an idea, as in a product, and not the idea itself. The patent system is in place to promote innovation. Patents on Software Merriam-Webster defines software as, â€Å"something used or associated with and usually contrasted with hardware: as: the entire set of programs, procedures, and related documentation associated with a system and especially a computer system; specifically : computer programs.†[1] Britannica Encyclopedia defines software as, â€Å"instructions that tell a computer what to do.†[2] These definitions of software as a set of instructions, or an associated part with hardware, immediately differentiate it from your typical invented product. By itself you do not have a product, yet United States case law has contended that once you put that software on a disc, you do have a product. Patents have been crucial to distributing your typical technical innovation. Software has no such limitation. Software ideas and innovations have spread quickly through the public domain of information. Some reasons for software distributing so quickly is its relative immaturity as a science and engineering practice, extensive freely distribution from universities, and a near direct fiscal value in general acceptance and use of a software concept[3]. Software innovation has flourished under the general availability of software code, concepts, and tools. Additionally, software is developed incrementally, building quickly on existing concepts. In general, the patent system has been shown to slow the development of incrementally developing technologies such as software[4]. Some Good Software Patents Very carefully reviewed, and perhaps shorter duration software patents could benefit innovation. A software implementation that might otherwise be kept hidden behind trade secret in a company could be revealed to the public for an exchange of monopolistic control.

Life on Other planets. Essay -- essays research papers

One of the most common unanswered questions scientists find themselves asking is "Is there life on other planets?" Since the first famously documented UFO sighting in 1947, the idea of extra-terrestrial life has been debated almost non-stop. The subject has inspired many TV programs, such as The X-Files, and films (Mars Attacks, Independence Day, and the Men in Black films to name but a few). Scientists have come up with many new ideas and ways of trying to either prove or disprove the existence of life elsewhere. Mars is a very similar planet to earth in relation to size and atmosphere. Therefore it seemed like the most likely place to search for life. At the end of the 19th century, an American named Percival Lowell built himself an observatory so that it was possible for him to study Mars in intimate detail when its orbit was closest to Earth. At this time it had recently been suggested that the planet had a system of channels on the surface, present from the evaporation of flowing water. Looking through his telescope Lowell became convinced he could see a network of artificial canals. This led him to believe that there were intelligent beings on Mars who had built these canals. However, spacecraft have now visited Mars and found that there is no evidence of water at all. It is now thought that the lines he could see were the combination of Lowell's overactive imagination, and scratches on the lens of his telescope. We are now searching one of Jupiter's moons, Europa, as this seems to be th e next likely place to hold life. It is seen to be more likely, however, that we will find less intelligent life in one of two different ways: It may be possible for us to obtain material from another planet or moon or star from elsewhere in the Solar System. Spacecraft may be able to visit these bodies and, for example, use a robot to collect material for examination. This may be examined on site, or brought to Earth to be investigated in laboratory conditions. They could be tested for things such as evidence of fossilised organisms. Another, possibly slightly far-fetched hope is that we may find simple organisms like bacteria actually living on the desired planet. These ideas spanned from the discovery of rock on our planet that originated from Mars; knocked from the planet when a comet collided with it. In 1996 a group of scientists created conflict by ... ...them is so great that they are dragged to our planet. Another idea is that UFO's are not really from other planets at all, but created right here on Earth. Supposedly Germans, Americans and Soviets started the 'Projekt Saucer' in Germany towards the end of World War II. During the war Germans sent ships to the Antarctic with equipment and plans for a massive underground structure. It is said that at the end of the war scientists and engineers who had been working on Projekt Saucer in Germany ended up in this underground structure, where even more advanced saucers were created. In a manner of thinking this is by far the scariest theory should it be proved correct, for it brings up more questions than it gives answers. What would people on Earth want to create spaceships for? Why keep it such a secret if everything is harmless? Maybe, if this theory is proved correct, it is better not to know the answers. To conclude, there are no solid facts on the existence of extra-terrestrials. Whether or not they exist will, until definite proof is brought forward, be a topic of major debate. Personally I believe that there is something out there-although what it is I wouldn't hazard a guess.

Organizational Changes

In the past organizations have been faced with problems of change due to the introduction of new information technologies as the internet .Organizational change occurs when an organization desires to change its overall strategies for achieving its goals, when it wants to add or remove some sections of the organization and when it wants to change its way of operating its business.The leaders and managers are given the responsibility of implementing change in the organizations, but there have been cases where some have failed to carry out their activities because of their own selfish interests, lack of knowledge or ignorance on their part, although some leaders have carried out their activities effectively. It is difficult to implement changes in the organizations but with the good structured programs the organization can effectively implement its changes.In times of change people in organization rarely accept change because it will affect them in one way or another, thus a manager one needs to know how people are empowered in their organization so that they can utilize the skills of all employees in the organization.   Ã‚  People resist change because of individual fears, denial and anger the organization should accept the weaknesses of the workers and they should counsel them since it is at this particular time they require help so that they can accept themselves and assist them to perform as required. In cases where there are the employees are resisting changes at all circumstances they should be given other duties to perform.In the case of politics and prose bookstore in Washington D.C of Barbara Meade and Carla Cohen they owed the business but they decided to hire an independent manager known as Danny Gainsburg to run the business. The management failed to recognize the fact that employees who had worked in the organization were supposed to be empowered so that they could carry out the task of running the management but the management employed a different person this led to conflicts.The management should have empowered its own employees in to the organization since they had acquired  the necessary skill to run the business.   With the appointment of Mr. Danny Gainsburg as an entrepreneur in to the organization was a big threat to the organization since he had his own way of running the organization since he was not previously employed in the organization.When employees are empowered they are able to accomplish the tasks that they are assigned to do since they are given the powers and authority to do their tasks as they have been asked to do and this gives them the motivation to pursue their jobs effectively.Another factor that would   lead to the process of implementing the changes of the business the employees are   practices such as flexible job assignment in terms jobs rotations or flexible schedules this provides employees with a better overview of the organization and gives them the opportunity to improve and training w ould give employees a better understanding of the techniques used and potentially increase their capacity to deal with problems incentive pays such as line incentives, power sharing and bonuses would be used to reward the employees.For change to be made effective the top management must support the change process they must provide workshop, extra time, resources, and training to the employees so as to enable change to be implemented effectively in the organization. The top management must also train, coach, and manage the process they can accomplish this by re-arranging workloads, and allowing other workers to take part in the change process. The workers must be motivated by giving them staff leaves, overtime pays, and they must be encouraged to view work so that they can effectively achieve their goals.The organization must create a conducive environment for the workers so that they can accomplish their tasks these includes allowing them to correct their mistakes and punishing thos e who need to be punished since they have been known to resist change. The organizations needs to evaluate update and periodically improve its policies, procedures, plans, communication methods, new technologies, values, performance appraisals so that it can conform to what its expected to do and this can result in better results for the organization. http://www.managementhelp.org/misc/reqrs-for successful-change.pdf  Ms Meade and Ms Cohen should have communicated the changes of organization and this would have ensured that the employees were made aware of their tasks in the organization thus be able to achieve the objectives of the organization and the task of implementing the changes of the organization.At the time when the management informed the staff about the appointment of Mr. Gains burg in to the organization the appointment was appreciated because the employees were prepared to receive him although other people did not accept him since he didn’t have the necessary experience of carrying his activities. For Gainsburg to have learnt how to deal with the problems of the organization, he set standards that would ensure that he interacted properly with the employees, had an understanding of the duties and roles of the employees and this eliminated chances of getting a negative response from them.Ms Meade and Ms Cohen move to sell the organization without the employees knowledge was a wrong move since the employees should have been informed about the move so that they could prepare themselves adequately for the change since this would mean that they would lose jobs since a new management would bring in new employees in the organization.In course of doing business the organization realized high sales from its competitor the Barnes and noble Inc and borders group inc they said their success was attributed from having their staff being motivated, having the staff with the right skills and knowledge of doing their business and the employees being charg ed with the responsibility of handling all matters of the organization and this factors made the employees work effectively. Ms Meade and Ms Cohen should have motivated, chosen the right personnel in to the organization so that they would carry out their activities effectively and this would have boosted the performance of the company tremendously.The management decision to employ Mr. Gainsburg as a partner in to the organization was unexpected because he spend most of his time with owners of the business hence he acquired the knowledge of how the business was being run thus he became the manager of the organization. Under Mr. Gainsburg leaderships in these bookstores he brought changes since he had acquired the experience to run the business, he ensured changes were implemented effectively and he informed the employees about the all that was to be done. The duties and roles of the employees were defined thus he was able to carry out his task effectively.The other reason why Mr. Gai nsburg could have succeeded in running the business is that he had employees who worked as a team and did their work effectively and this lead to the businesses success.  He had personal attributes that lead to the success of the business such as he was ready to take the risk of taking up a business that was not performing; he was humble since he took time to learn the business. He was aggressive as he listened to the criticism of others and he accepted new ideas of operating the business and thus was able to take the opportunities that the business had this led to the successful implementations of the organizationMr. Danny Gains burg learnt   ideas that enabled him   achieve its objectives these were: he established the analyzes of competition and identified the problem of the organization and he led the team to change, he created a vision for the organization which acted as a guide on how the business was to be led, he communicated the vision, strategies and the expected beh avior of the employees towards the job, he identified people who could implement change and he ensured that the changes became part of the organizational culture for long-term transformation and growth.The success of the organizations performance was as a result of the new management being given the authority to carry out its activities independently with no interference of the other departments, the management gave the employees the rights of doing their business and also trained the staff on the right mechanisms of carrying out the business and a better environment for the business was created which enhanced quality results for the organization.In order to improve productivity in to the organizations employees must benefit financially from their contribution. This means that the employees must be motivated so that they can produce good results for the organization; they must be given incentives as good pay job security, job flexibility and leisure periods.   Ã‚  The members of t he organization should be enlightened on the need for change because people resist changes in the organization because of fear of the unknown, the inadequacy to deal with change and they fear the effect that change will have on their jobs.For the organization to successful implement changes in the organization it must implement plans that consist of activities that can make change in the organization to be effective. The plans can include creating or modifying structures and processes in the organization, loading, training and enforcement of new policies and procedures must be carried out so as to ensure that the changes can be implemented effectively.Organizational change efforts should be geared towards improving the performance of the organization and the people of the organization. There are tools know as system thinking and system theory this can enable an employee to explore, understand and communicate about the progress of change process effectively. An employee needs to unde rstand himself, his biases and know he manages feedback and conflict and how he makes decision so that he can be able to interact with the other people in the organization and can bring about good results to the organization. Change agents should be honest in their work and they should set good principles that will promote the successful implementation of change process.The organizational barriers that an organization faces are when the staff of organizations other neglects their obligations .In other circumstances change can’t be accomplished because the top officials fail to recognize and to manage the workers who contribute to the development of the organization the workers.Another factor that would lead to the process of implementing the changes of the business the employees are practices such as flexible job assignment in terms jobs rotations or flexible schedules this provides employees with a better overview of the organization and gives them the opportunity to improve and training would give employees a better understanding of the techniques used and potentially increase theirThe management may fail to explain the importance of change to the organization failure to provide information, failure of the employees to consult when they are encountered with problems failure of the employees to negotiate with other staff and failure of the employees to relate properly with other colleagues in the organization and failure of the top management to build trust and a sense of security to their officials   thus the employees may not have the know how of conducting their businesses. The top officials may ignore the ideas of the other junior staff since they fear that they will be intimidated by their juniors.In most cases change efforts fail because the managers fail to recognize that the way employees behave in different ways thus dealing with their behaviors can be a difficult task thus the management must be trained on the effective methods of implement ing changes in the organization,Due to changes that have occurred in the organization   the managers must properly structure their policies in the areas such in the rules and procedures of the organization,rewardsystems ,corporate identities and career planning programs .The management should at all times consult the experts when they implementing changes in the organization .The employees should change their attitude about how they conduct their activities so they can allow decisions of the organization to be implemented effectively.

Race, Class, and Gender in the United States Essay

Rothenberg paints an oppressive picture for women, the financially oppressed and minority members of society. The author presents compelling essays of race, gender and class which examine the social construct of each issue. Race has been defined as the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race. This has produced the view that Euro-Americans’ social, cultural, and economic advantaged position must be maintained at the expense of others as the normal life. The influential power of race, gender and class are explained and illustrated through the collection of essays. The dynamics of power are divided based on different social classifications. Concrete Responses The essays included present a compelling but biased study within the context of class, race and gender. History shows racism has been clearly practiced in the past; however much has been done to correct the unbridgeable and immutable differences in race, gender and class status in the United States. Rothenberg emphasizes, in the collection of essays, past views of Euro-Americans’ superiority in intelligence and abilities over darker skinned races. Throughout the history of the United States, discrimination against race and gender has been documented thus creating various classes according to race and gender. Racism has been defined as â€Å"a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race† (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, 2010). While discrimination is described as being â€Å"the process by which two stimuli differing in some aspect are responded to differently† (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, 2010). Discrimination encompasses a much larger circumference than racism. People v. Hall, 1854, Dred Scott v. Sandford, 1857, and Bradwell v. Illinois, 1873 created a class difference in the ruling of each case between Euro-American males, Indians, Negroes, Chinese and women (Rothenberg, 2010, p. 495). Skin color differences have been thought to explain intellectual, physical and artistic differences, thus justifying varying treatment between racially different individuals (Rothenberg, 2010, p. 17). A person of property was considered of superior intelligence and character (Rothenberg, 2010, p. 8). The claim that race is a social construction takes issue with the once popular belief that people were born into different races with innate, biologically based differences in intellect, temperament, and character (Rothenberg, 2010, p. 10). Michael Omi and Howard Winant maintain that â€Å"Race is more a political categorization that a biological or scientific category† (Rothenberg, 2010, p. 10). Racial distinctions can be correlated with economic and political changes in the society of the United States. In California, 1854, the state Supreme Court ruled in the case, People v. Hall that Chinese Americans should be barred from testifying against whites as Indians and Negroes had previously been barred with a California statue. The judges â€Å"marked [Chinese-Americans] as inferior, and †¦ are incapable of progress or intellectual development beyond a certain point† (Rothenberg, 2010, p. 495). Orientals and Hispanics were regarded to be naturally suited to perform brutal, sometimes crippling, farm labor which whites were physically unsuited to perform. In 1857, the United States Supreme Court ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford stated that â€Å"Negroes were never considered a part of the people of the United States (Rothenberg, 2010, 495). Gender refers to the particular set of socially constructed meanings associated with each sex (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, 2010). Men and women have been portrayed as polar opposites with different abilities. The notion of difference itself is constructed and suggests that the claim that women and men are naturally and profoundly different reflects a political and social decision rather than a distinction given in nature. In 1873, the Supreme Court ruled in Bradwell v. Illinois that women could not practice law and added further degradation arguing â€Å"that women belong in the â€Å"domestic sphere†Ã¢â‚¬  (Rothenberg, 2010, 495). Every society has different options on what constitutes a woman’s gender role verses a man’s role. While Roe v. Wade, 1973, is considered a significant stride forward in women’s rights, the after effects of the abortion rights given have for open debate on the benefits this case has brought to the women’s movement. Spiritually, man and wife should be as one flesh (Genesis 2:24) and a helpmate to each other (Genesis 2:18), not in competition with each other for power. In the past, attitudes against races and gender other than Euro-American males have restricted the right to vote, own property, and even extended to the forced evacuation of Japanese-Americans into relocation camps. Clearly, discrimination has existed in this country; however, â€Å"the twentieth century has seen the growth of large and diverse movements for race and gender justice† (Rothenberg, 2010, p. 497). However, Rothenberg’s emphasis on race and gender portray differences as unbridgeable and immutable, regardless of any social programs or education. Reflection Rothenberg’s collection of essays is informative of historical discrimination and the opinions of a number of authors; however, there are two sides to every story. Rothenberg has presented only one side of the race, class, and gender issues in an angry fashion. All evil has not been created by Euro-Americans. Pem Davidson Buck states that northern Whites looked down their noses at the Irish in the same manner they looked at free Blacks (Rothenberg, 2010, p. 35). This created a â€Å"psychological wage† (Buck as quoted by Rothenberg, 2010, p. 35), instead of monetary gain, such as the employee of the month or assigned parking places (Rothenberg, 2010, p. 35). Calvinism taught being poor was a punishment from God while success was a sign of being righteous with God. This further created differences in class among the American society, including discrimination of women, people of color, and homophobia. Differences between rich and poor, white and black, men and women are socially constructed as innate differences among people. Then they are used to rationalize or justify the unequal distribution of wealth and power that results from economic decisions made to perpetuate privilege. The status of various occupations and class positions they imply often changes depending on whether the occupation is predominately female or male. This particular discrimination also led to more domestication of women. Status began to be calculated if a woman could â€Å"stay home† (Rothenberg, 2010, p. 36). If a woman was forced into the labor force, the family didn’t meet the cultural requirements for white privilege (Rothenberg, 2010, p. 36). The categories of gender, race and class reflect culturally constructed differences that maintain the prevailing distribution of power and privilege in a society. Constructed differences are altered in relation to social, political and economic changes. The argument seems to fluxuate between racism and culturism. If cultural status is lost due to a woman working, that has very little to do with to which race she belongs. As stated in Buck’s essay (Rothenberg, 2010, p. 36), native men redefined themselves by† their class position as skilled mechanics working for better wages under better conditions† (p. 36) due to the ownership of their trade tools and their hard work ethic (Rothenberg, 2010, p. 36). Again this is cultural rather than racial. Any craftsmen, no matter what color his skin, can buy the tools of his trade to better his position. Rothenberg tends to be angry at this country’s struggles against racism, class and gender. She has collected many angry essays to support her racial and feminist opinions but has not shown more than a minimal reference to how far this country has progressed for all races and genders to be â€Å"We the People of the United States† (U. S. Constitution, 1776) forming a more perfect Union under God. Action This book has given me much food for thought. During the reading of this book, I have been more consciously aware of the different races and cultures in my workplace. While I don’t agree with Rothenberg’s apparent view that racial and gender discrimination continues in our society today as it has throughout our country’s history, I do see a tendency towards a reverse discrimination. Since my husband joined corporate America almost two years ago, I’ve watched him miss promotions, even though he is very productive and conscientious in his work, so that a minority, usually a woman, could have the position, even though her employee record is full of criticism of her work ethic. White males continue to be punished today for the actions and attitudes of their forefathers even though most do not hold those same discriminatory beliefs. While I am not unconscious of race, I do not identify an individual as part of a particular race in my first impression or description of them. As I have illustrated with my students, no two people whether light or dark skinned are the same color. The biggest wish I have for my students is for them to be able to unzip their skin so that color is not visible to each other at all. As future medical assistants, surgical technicians, pharmacy technicians and nursing assistants, these students need to see past race, gender and even class. As a teacher, I strive not to make decisions based on race or gender. Class is not an issue for me in the class room since all students dress in scrubs according to school dress code. Lao Tzu said, â€Å"Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day. Teach him how to fish and you feed him for a lifetime†(n. d. ). I am a firm believer that regardless of race, gender or class that our country was founded to give everyone an equal opportunity to pursue life, liberty and happiness with hard work and education. If I can give my students a sense of work ethic along with the academic and technical skills they need, I will have given them the tools to succeed financially and in their chosen professions. References Discrimination. (2010). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved August 13, 2010, from http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/discrimination gender. (2010). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved August 13, 2010, from http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/gender Lao Tzu. (n. d. ). BrainyQuote. com. Retrieved August 13, 2010, from BrainyQuote. com Web site: http://www. brainyquote. com/quotes/quotes/l/laotzu121559. html Mount, Steve. (2001)†The Constitution of the United States,† Preamble. USConstitution. net. U. S. Constitution online. Retrieved August 12, 2010 from http://www. usconstitution. net/const. html racism. (2010). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved August 8, 2010, from http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/racism Rothenberg, P. (2010), Race, Class, and Gender in the United States. New York: Worth Publishers.